The Socio

Identifying the socio-cultural impacts of a Native American community such as Akwesasne[1] requires that researchers understand the worldview and the unique relationship the people have with the environment. Each Native Nation has traditional teachings that provide them with a unique way of understanding their relationship within the Natural World, the environment.

The Ohen:ton Karihwatehkwen (Words Before All Else) is a cultural teaching of the Haudenosaunee (People of the Longhouse)[2] that expresses the people’s worldview. The Ohen:ton Karihwatehkwen addresses the duties and responsibilities of the Natural World, and gives thanks to all beings in the Natural World as they continue in their duties. The Ohen:ton Karihwatehkwen reminds humans beings that they are not the center of the universe, but are just a part of the Great Web of Life. (see, Grinde and Johansen, 1995) This relationship requires humans to assure that our actions do not have detrimental impacts on the rest of the Natural World. As humans, we are to live in balance with the rest of the Natural World and protect the coming generations. In essence, the Ohen:ton Karihwatehkwen is a thanksgiving address that illustrates the cultural and natural law that each being, within the Natural World, is interdependent on one another for survival; and, for there to be peace, wellness, and continuity of life each must be allowed to function freely, to fulfill their duties and responsibilities.

This perspective is based on our traditional teachings and is being explained today in an effort to share our worldview of the environment and to illustrate the unique socio-cultural impacts implicated by icebreaking activities and winter shipping within the territory of Akwesasne. An overview of the duties and responsibilities of the Waters is an important starting point in this presentation. Then, a discussion on the historic and modern uses of the ice cover by the people of Akwesasne, and the concerns of the People of Akwesasne relating to the safety and protection of the environment and the unique cultural needs of the people will follow. The presentation will end with a summary and an invitation for others to join the Akwesasronen (People of Akwesasne) in the protection of the Natural World and our culture, from the impacts of icebreaking activities, winter shipping and the potential Seaway Expansion.

An overview of the original instructions, the duties, responsibilities, and functions, of the Waters is important to outline, as it is a fundamental part of Creation, of the environment, that provides for the survival of all species and beings.

The Waters have many duties, responsibilities, and functions that even go beyond what humans know or yet understand. As humans, we sometimes forget how dependent life on this planet is on water for survival. Every raindrop that falls from the sky has importance. Today scientists know that the hydrological system is finite. In other words, the amount of water on earth is limited.

At the time of Creation the Waters, and every being, was given original instructions. These instructions provided the Waters with duties and responsibilities for maintaining a balance with all the Natural World. Water was given instructions on how to maintain itself, for it has processes for cleansing and purifying itself. (Ransom, 2000) Some processes include the Waters collecting in wetlands that act to filter out impurities and fill underground rivers. These underground waters feed Mother Earth from the inside. We have learned how to drink from these underground rivers through the use of wells. These veins of water also can sometimes be found spurting from the surface. These springs provide humans and other living beings with clean water to drink. The Waters are helped in this process by other beings within the Great Web of Life. The beaver helps in cleansing the water, for their dams create “wetlands and lush meadow, which sponge up floods and filter water” (Lukas 2000, p. 30).

Rain adds to the rivers, streams, lakes and wetlands. It is the Waters’ duty and responsibility to feed and fill the thirst of the plants, birds, and four-legged and two-legged animals. Water provides a home and breeding ground for the fish and aquatic animals, insects, plants, reptiles, amphibians, and birds. Without clean water, life as we know it on earth, would end.

The Waters also work as a cooling system for the Earth. Today, through global warming we are seeing the Waters coming to the aid of Mother Earth more often, as the Water’s attempt to keep the Natural World in balance. In the winter, raindrops become hail and flakes of snow and the surface waters freeze and become ice. Snow and Ice have natural functions and processes. Snow coats the earth and protects the underground rivers from freezing. The Ice cover puts the lakes, rivers, and streams to rest. The ice cover regulates water temperatures that keep algae and aquatic plants that feed fish, birds, and aquatic amphibians in balance. Without the ice cover, as a natural check, the entire Natural World becomes out of balance.

The ice cover has its own cycle in the rivers, the tributaries, and adjacent wetlands. In the rivers, ice freezes in a manner that allows for different species of fish to gather, which is best for the survival of that fish. In addition, underwater air pockets are created along the shores that provide oxygen, access and hideouts for aquatic animals. The ice cover provides a corridor for the travel of humans and four-legged animals. Ice allows the animals to migrate. They can travel from island to island and from island to main land where foods may be better, which would prove difficult if not impossible for some species during the warmer months.

Four-legged animals use the ice cover, in the St. Lawrence River as part of a corridor, to migrate into Akwesasne. In addition, local wildlife such as rabbits and squirrels and other large migrating animals depend on the ice bridges to travel from the islands to the main lands in search of food and to expand their territory. For example, black squirrels found on Cornwall Island are now being found across the river in Kanatakon (St. Regis) and Hogansburg, and other large migrating animals have been seen on Cornwall Island after crossing the ice bridge.

The aforementioned are just some of the duties and responsibilities the Waters have in Creation. Today, the Haudenosaunee give thanks to the Waters in all their forms for continuing to follow their original instructions and providing for the entire Natural World.

The St. Lawrence River is the lifeblood of Akwesasne and as such the ice cover is central to the winter socio-cultural activities of the community. The ice cover is a cultural property and resource that is a necessity for Akwesasronen in various ways. The people used and continue to make use of the ice on the rivers in many ways. The ice functions to provide Akwesasronen with a means of transportation, it facilitates the people economically, it provides a place for people to gather, and it provides a place for people to perform rituals that are played on snow and ice.

Historically, ice was one method used to keep foods from spoiling. Blocks of ice were harvested in the springtime. The blocks of ice were stored in icehouses. The people of Akwesasne kept their food cool throughout the summer through the use of these stored blocks of river ice. (See, Community Report, 1999)

The ice cover in the St. Lawrence and surrounding rivers provided and still do provide the people of Akwesasne with winter access to the islands within the St. Lawrence River and other the portions of the Akwesasne. (ATFE 2004, 95) The people depend on these ice bridges in numerous ways from travel and recreation, to socialization and to making a living. Within Akwesasne, there are approximately eight ice roads that would be directly jeopardized by artificial icebreaking activities within the St. Lawrence River. (See, attached map) There are approximately five other ice bridges that may be impacted indirectly due to the weakening of the ice from passing ships’ wakes and the destruction of the natural ice cover.

Akwesasne hunters depend on the use of the ice roads to hunt on the islands, which helps to keep deer populations in balance. The ice cover also allows for the people to gather firewood. There are many Akwesasronen who make a winter living from selling the fish they catch during the winter. (George, 2003) Ice fishermen use the ice roads to setup their fishing shacks and to drive out to their sites daily.

Ice fishing is a historical use of ice in the St. Lawrence River that is deeply imbedded within Akwesasne culture. The Akwesasne Mohawks main source of food from the rivers was fish. Today, many ice fishermen make a winter living from the fish they catch and sell. Although industrial pollution has greatly impacted the fish, the people at Akwesasne by tradition still rely on the fish as a staple in their diet. (Mitchell, 2004)

Traditionally fish were taken in areas where the water was shallow with fishing spears. Spears were originally carved from hickory or ironwood, which is said to become stronger when used in water. (George, 2003) These wooden spears were replaced with iron spears with the coming of the Europeans. The Mohawks also used carved fishing decoys that were used in rectangular-shaped ice holes to attract fish. Once fish were lured within reach, they were speared.

Today, winter ice fishing still remains a strong cultural activity of the Akwesasronen. Today not many people use spears, but they do use ice fishing poles and tip-ups. On the winter ice, fishing shack “towns” appear as soon as the ice cover is safe. One can hear and see socialization happening on the ice. A walk out to the shacks opens a door to hearing our Mohawk language being spoken, Akwesasne history being shared, some good fish stories being told, and a lot of good conversation. Ice fishing is an Akwesasne cultural usage of the ice cover that provides social cohesion for the people of Akwesasne.

Traditional, recreational and ceremonial winter games included snow snake and snow boat. In Akwesasne, these games were often played on the ice-covered St. Lawrence River. The frozen St. Lawrence River is a historic and remains today to be the heart of cultural and community activities for the people of Akwesasne.

In the winter, the younger people use the ice cover as a place to socialize. The ice cover also provides the people of Akwesasne with non-traditional forms of recreation. The ice bridges are used by snowmobiles. In Akwesasne, snowmobile clubs have formed with trails crisscrossing the St. Lawrence River. While this is not a traditional usage of the ice, it is a modern social activity that creates solidarity for the younger people of Akwesasne. Last winter during the Midwinter Carnival snowmobile races were held on the river. The event was well attended by both riders and spectators. Recreational snowmobiling on the river’s ice cover has given the young people an additional winter activity.

The integrity of the ice cover is of great importance to the entire natural world and culturally to the people of Akwesasne. Icebreaking will disrupt the natural cycle of the river and will negatively impact the people of Akwesasne. The people of Akwesasne are concerned that proper updated environmental studies have not been undertaken to adequately determine the negative impacts of ice breaking activities in the St. Lawrence River to the Natural World. Thus, up to date and additional research and environmental studies concerning: a) the icebreaking activities, b) the history of spills and an inventory of spill response authorities and assets available to serve the river, and c) winter shipping, needs to be conducted. In addition, the cultural impacts and needs of the Akwesasne people need to be considered and studied so that adequate protections can be developed to protect the community of Akwesasne. Old methods of identifying and analyzing the unique needs of native peoples have failed and an indigenous perspective that holistically looks at the environment including the cultural needs of the native people needs to be studied.

The people of Akwesasne are concerned that a forced destruction of the ice cover will weaken the ice in others parts of the St. Lawrence River, as well as impact the ice on connecting rivers. We know that eight ice bridges will be destroyed by icebreaking; however, the weakening effects on adjacent ice and the risks to the people of Akwesasne remains unknown. In addition, the impact of passing ships’ wakes on adjacent ice is also an unknown. Ice breaking within the Seaway may put at risk the animals that use the ice for migrations and the people of Akwesasne. Under the ice, ship wakes may drown aquatic animals by flooding ice caverns (pockets) that these animals use for breathing and for traveling beneath the ice cover. It may also make the ice unsafe for humans to walk or drive on. Thus, ice breaking will jeopardize the socio-culture uses of the ice cover at Akwesasne.

The people are also concerned that icebreaking will increase the risks associated with shoreline erosion. The shoreline and structures built along the shore will be highly impacted. In addition, the scouring of the riverbank and bed will churn up sediment; thus, exposing the environment and people to toxic chemicals. The people are also concerned that ice breaking will put at risk breeding areas and impact sensitive medicinal plants that grow along and adjacent to the river that the Akwesasronen depend on to keep the community healthy.

Akwesasne is concerned that ice breaking interferes with the natural cycle of the river. It causes the Natural World to become out of balance and puts the ecosystem of the St. Lawrence River at risk. The Haudenosaunee environmental perspective requires us to think of the future generations, which is perhaps why we often stand on the cutting edge of environmental issues that have the potential to harm the Natural World. Today we find ourselves on the cutting edge of the icebreaking and winter shipping issue. It is our hope that the St. Lawrence Seaway Management Corporation, the St. Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation, Transport Canada and the U.S. Department of Transportation will understand the environmental and socio-cultural impacts of icebreaking and winter shipping to Akwesasne and cease all future icebreaking activities.

The waters have a natural cycle, with ice serving many functions that humans and the rest of the Natural World are interdependent on for there to be well-being and balance within Creation. Therefore, it is our position that ice breaking will have devastating socio-cultural impacts to the Mohawk people and the environment at Akwesasne. The ice cover should be allowed to break-up naturally. Nature should dictate the opening and closing of the Seaway shipping season, not humans. Icebreaking should not be used because the harms to the environment and to the community of Akwesasne far outweigh the economic benefits. The Akwesasne Mohawk’s position is that the ice cover should be retained until the natural spring thaw has occurred to protect the environment and the Akwesasronen socio-cultural usages of the ice cover.

The Seaway expansion, icebreaking activities and winter shipping have the potential to further impact the environment and culture at Akwesasne. The Akwesasne community and environment was never given restoration for the impacts that began with the construction of the Seaway Project in the 1950s. Early icebreaking would cause the Akwesasronen and the environment further injustice. It is not fair for the people of Akwesasne to carry the burden of environmental and cultural impacts, for the economic benefits of others. This would be environmental injustice.

The Akwesasne Mohawks are concerned that the present Great Lakes St. Lawrence Seaway Study, which is advocated as looking at ways to improve the Seaway, will be used as a base line study to support expansion of the seaway and/or to extend the navigation season. Another concern that the Mohawks have is that the current methods of assessing the environment and the cultural impacts to indigenous people are inadequate and often favor economic benefits. As a result, such methods do not provide a holistic protection for the environment, or protection for the unique uses of the river by indigenous people, such as the socio-cultural uses of the ice cover and river at Akwesasne.

It is our hope that others who are opposing the Seaway Expansion, winter shipping and icebreaking activities will join the Akwesasne Mohawks as we struggle to protect the environment and our way of life from the devastating impacts of icebreaking activities within the St. Lawrence River, winter shipping and the potential Seaway Expansion.

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[1] Akwesasne means Land where the Partridge drums, a reference to the sound that water makes as it cascades over rapids. Akwesasne is used here to refer to the territory of the Mohawk people that straddles the St. Lawrence.

[2] The Haudenosaunee confederacy is composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca Nations.